Advanced Criminalities Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Advanced Criminalities - Assignment Example The amount (percentage) of ethanol in beer varies depending on brands. The amount (percentage) of ethanol in the beer that the accused can be assumed to be a particular value so that everybody reads the same script given the difference in the percentages of ethanol in beer. iv) The test results showed that the accused was not able to perform some physical activities like standing on one leg as well as walking. It is very wrong to say that the only thing, which can impair one from walking or standing on one leg, is alcohol. There are numerous factors that can make one unable to walk. Health status of a person a significant factor that can deter someone from walking or standing on one leg. The assumption, therefore, is that the accused was of good health. No. One cannot have such high percentage of alcohol in the blood with just four beer. The person must have consumed copious amounts of beer. The percentage of ethanol in the beer was 3.5%. This value is very low and, therefore, four beers cannot result in recording 0.17% blood alcohol level. The person may have consumed four beers as he claims but might have also consumed other additional drinks, which may be responsible for the o.17% blood alcohol level. The range of maximum blood alcohol level at which one is allowed to operate a vehicle on a public road is in most states is 0.5- 0.8 for males and 0.25-0.7 for females. The blood alcohol concentration mostly depends on the gender, the period over which the alcohol was taken, the amount of food present in the stomach, the weight as well as the metabolism rate. However, it is always important to note that in as much as the BAC level of a person can be estimated, the number of drinks, height and weight alone cannot help in determining the BAC. (Zernig, Salaria, Kurz, 2000. Pg. 420) Eight 4-ounce glasses of wine with approximately 12% alcohol content would be required to make the BAC level to be 0.17%.  Ã‚  

Yardley Of London Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Yardley Of London - Case Study Example In the past decades so many Organisations laid foundation stone and provided different products and services, none of them is remembered unchanged from the time of initiation, so the change in an Organisation is a mandatory for keeping the products or services in the growth stage.The organisation we would be discussing is a very well known in not only Britain but also the entire world. Yardley of London is among the most popular companies in Britain.Yardley was first brought into business in 1620, in the reign of the impecunious Charles I, when a young man of that name paid the monarch a large, and no doubt welcome, sum of money to gain a concession to manufacture soap for the whole of London. Sadly, the particulars of this canny enterprise were lost in the great fire of London in 1666, except for one detail: Mr. Yardley used English lavender to perfume his soap a fragrance for which Yardley is famous to this day. William Cleaver inherited the soap and perfumery business founded by h is father in the city of London in 1770. When he run into debts his father in law, William Yardley, took over the business becoming the first Yardley to own the enterprise. Here the story of a world-renowned company that has brought beauty to so many women and good grooming to so many men began. In 1817 William Yardley was trading still as a sword-cutler in Bloomsbury, but by 1824, when he died, he had transferred to adjacent premises the second business of supplying lavender, cosmetics and soap. This business was left to his younger son, Charles (1795-1882), for the elder son, John, was already established as a builder. He it was who built St. James's Church in Clerkenwell, and whose name is perpetuated in Yardley Street off Rosebery Avenue London. Charles Yardley soon appointed a partner and established his own son Charles (1824-1872), in the business, which was known as Yardley and Statham. It was under this name that the firm exhibited at the Great Exhibition in Hyde Park in 185 1, expending some fifty pounds on showcases, soap moulds and other items and sharing a little of the glory of the incredible 'Crystal Palace'. A sample cake of Old Brown Windsor Soap, carrying an embossed representation of Windsor Castle is still preserved in the Yardley archives and was exhibited again at the 1951 Festival of Britain. The business was blooming and the first overseas selling organisations were open. Advertising increased and with it the demand for Yardley products. By 1910 a London centre at 8 New Bond Street, famous for years afterwards, had been opened for the display and retail sales of a firm which, only ten years before, had been virtually unknown to the general public. 1920 saw Yardley converted into a public limited company, with 1921 bringing the first foray into the lucrative US market. By 1932 the spirit duty on lavender was removed, turnover doubled and the factory needed extending. Further accommodation was found at 32 High Street Stratford. From 1950s o nwards, Yardley further enhanced its worldwide reputation by expanding into five different market sectors: cosmetics, luxury bath products, female fragrances, male fragrances and skin care. These were the years where the beloved classics of White Satin, Lace and English Blazer were launched, and the Yardley lipsticks were advertised as an essential 'woman's ammunition'. Yardley London enters the new millennium as world leaders in naturally fragranced bath luxuries, remaining true to its heritage as the quintessential English perfumery house specialising in lavender and floral fragrances. From sedan chairs to the Concorde; from messengers to communication

All aspects of physical, psychological and social needs

All aspects of physical, psychological and social needs Nursing care for ill patient as a holistic and encompasses all aspects of physical, psychological and social needs. Therefore, patients and their families are the center on nursing care by more respect, dignity. Nurses and the other care providers must provide patients needs when dealing with chronic ill patients. The benefits of palliative care cancer/chronic ill patients are significant that enhancing patient quality of life (Lewis et al., 2007). Advanced cancer often causes a pain and other symptoms that need professional team to manage and control it. Pain, nausea, shortness of breath, vomiting and constipation are the most common symptoms appearance with these patients. In addition, each one of them has different experience of pain and the meaning of quality of life. Expert can deal and manage with these symptoms very well. (Backer, 2010). World health organization has defined palliative care as the full care that approach to improve quality of life for patient and their families whom are facing life threatening disease through prevent and relief their suffering and problems. This care concern in pain and other problems treatment, physical, psychological, social and spiritual support (Lugton Mcintyre, 2005). Many patients need palliative care specially the cancer patients those suffering too much at the end stage, regarding the metastatic. Cancer is known as a rapid creation of abnormal cells that grow beyond their usual boundaries which can break into the adjacent part of the body and spared to other organs. Refer this process as malignant tumor can be metastases to other part and organ in the body, which leading to death (WHO, 2011). Quality of life is the maximize comfort to the patient and family through four main areas the quality of physical, psychological, spiritual and existential (Batiste, Caja, Espinosa, Bullich, Porta-Sales, Sala, Lim ´n, Trellis, PascualPuente, 2010). Lung cancer for which surgery is not considered the most appropriate treatment option that called (inoperable lung cancer) due to one of several reasons, including the size of the tumor distant spread (metastasis) of tumor, location of the tumor and other health conditions that could rise the risk associated with surgery. In operable lung cancer does not mean that a tumor is untreatable. Other treatment, such as chemotherapy or radiation therapy may be better options than surgery (Llewellyn, Aun Ang, Lewis, Al-Abdulla, 2006). Lennart has been diagnosed with lung cancer and he has several problems that make him more weakness and affect his quality of life. These symptoms such as elevated blood pressure, diabetes type2, and inoperable lung cancer, cancer spread to his abdomen, pain and draining tube irritate his body tumor growth and constipation; he cannot eat anything and drinks only small sips of water.ØÙ„ØØ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃƒËœÃ‚ ¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ © Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒâ„¢Ã…  ÃƒËœÃ‚ © للكلÙ†¦ÃƒËœÃƒËœÃ‚ ª   The team should start to control his symptoms 1. Pain 2. Nausea. 3. Constipation diarrhea 4. Lost appetite. 5. No energy. 6. Elevated blood pressure. 7. Diabetes type2. Nursing assessment; Objective data; He has an elevated blood pressure and diabetes type 2. Diagnosed with an inoperable lung cancer. Subjective data; Pain and the draining tubes irritate his body, nausea and diarrhea, fatigue cancer has speared to his abdomen. 1. The problem is pain; pain can be appear due to the direct effects of the cancer (late stage) or caused by some treatment like surgery, drugs and chemotherapy. The patient may also have chronic underlying disease that directly causes or contributes to pain. (Lewis et al., 2007). A- Nursing care plan- pain control. Use analgesics appropriately. Use non analgesic relief measures. Report pain control. B Nursing intervention and rational; Observe for nonverbal cause of discomfort to plan appropriate intervention. Perform a comprehensive assessment of pain to include location, characteristic, onset, duration, frequency, quality, intensity of pain and precipitating factor. Teach Lennart and family the use of non pharmacological techniques e.g. (relaxation, massage). Provide the person optimal pain relief with prescribed analgesics to determine if is effective. Use pain control measures before pain become severe (Lewis et al., 2007). 2. The problem is nausea and vomiting. Lennatr has these symptoms due to 1. Release of intracellular breakdown products stimulates vomiting center in brain. 2. Drugs stimulate vomiting center in brain (Lewis et al., 2007). Nursing care plan nausea and vomiting control. Recognizes precipitating stimuli. Use preventive measures Use antiemetic medications. Report nausea, retching and vomiting controlled. B- Nursing intervention and rational. Perform complete assessment of nausea, including frequency, duration, and severity and precipitating factors to plan appropriate interventions. Reduce or eliminate personal factors that precipitate or increase the nausea (anxiety, fear, fatigue and lack of knowledge to avoid precipitating factors of nausea and vomiting. Use frequent oral hygiene, unless it stimulates nausea to promote comfort. Ensure effective antiemetic drugs are given when possible to prevent nausea and vomiting. Teach the family to use of the non pharmacologic e.g. (relaxation) to manage nausea and vomiting. Promote adequate rest and sleep to facilitate nausea relief (Backer, 2010). 3. The problem is Diarrhea; the patient has it due to 1. Denuding of epithelial lining of intestinal .2. The side effects of if the patient on chemotherapy.3. Radiation to the abdomen, pelvis and lumbosacral areas if he receives it .4. Laxatives, tube-feeding (Lewis et al., 2007). A. Nursing care plan-stop diarrhea. Bowel elimination. Diarrhea. . Pain with passage of stool. (Lewis et al., 2007). B .Nursing intervention and rational; Obtain stool for culture and sensitivity if diarrhea continues to provide appropriate treatment. Perform action to rest bowel (e.g. NPO, liquid diet). Instruct Lennart, and family members to record color, volume, frequency and consistency of stool to monitor treatment. Teach Lennart and his family appropriate use of anti-diarrheal medication to prevent patients use of anti peristaltic agents that prolong exposure to infection organisms. 4. The problem is diabetic. Insulin resistance decreased insulin production and alteration in production of adipokines.Disease is result of complex genetic interactions, which are modified by environmental factors such as body weight and exercise (Lewis et al., 2007). A .Nursing care plan- diabetic control. Description of insulin function. Description the role of diet in controlling blood glucose level. Explanation of the role of exercise in controlling blood glucose level Description of hyperglycemia, hypoglycemia, related symptoms and the procedure to be followed in the treatment. Explanation the impact of acute illness on blood glucose level. Description of when seek help from health care professional team. (Lewis et al., 2007). B. Nursing intervention and rationales Describe the disease process. Appraise Lennart current level of knowledge related to disease to determine the scope and extent of required teaching. Discuss the rationale behind management, therapy and treatment. Instruct Lennart on measures to prevent, minimize symptoms to promote management of disease. Discuss life style change that maybe required preventing complication and encouraging patient in determining change that will be acceptable. Instruct Lennart the signs and symptoms and reported to ensure prompt treatment. Refer the patient to support group to provide continuing support and education (Lewis et al., 2007). 5. The problem is loss of energy. Anabolic processes resulting in accumulation of metabolites from cell breakdown (Lewis et al., 2007). A. Nursing care plan- energy conservation. Recognize energy limitations. Uses energy conservation techniques. Balance activity and rest. Organize activities to conserve energy. Adapts life style to energy level, B. Nursing intervention and rationales. Determine patient physical limitations to plan daily activities. Assist Lennart to schedule rest periods to temporarily reverse effect of fatigue. Teach him and the family activity organization and time management teaching to prevent fatigue. Instruct patient significant other to recognize signs and symptoms of fatigue. Instruct patient significant other to notify health care provider if signs and symptoms of fatigue persist to increase patient support and family understanding of disease and related problem (Lewis et al., 2007). The problem is elevated blood pressure.. Potential complication adverse effect from antihypertensive therapy. 2. Potential complication hypertensive crisis.3. Potential complication of stroke. 4. Potential complication of myocardial infarction (Lewis et al., 2007). A. Nursing care plan blood pressure control. Improve myocardial contractility and systematic perfusion. Reduce fluid volume overload. Prevent complication. Provide information regarding disease, prognosis, therapy needs and prevention of recurrent. B. Nursing interventions and rationales; Assess cardiovascular status including vital signs to detect cardiac out compromise. Measurement blood pressure to ovoid complication. Assess neurologic static and observe for any change that can indicate an alteration in cerebral perfusion. Administer medication to lower the blood presser. Make sure that Lennart maintain a low sodium diet. Record and monitor the intake and output. Encourage Lennart and support them to express the feeling of stress to ease the anxiety. Promote quiet environment to reduce stress (Lewis et al., 2007). 7. The problem is constipation. The factors of constipation are many from the mass in anorectic region or neurologic and may be from the mechanical changes from surgery or decrease oral intake and mobility. Medications can affect like opioids and tricycle antidepressants (Lewis et al., 2007). A. Nursing care plan promote bowel movement. Stool soft and formed. Comfort of stool passage. Passage of stool without aids. (Lewis et al., 2007). B. Nursing intervention and rationales; Encouraging Lennart to movement and ambulation Maintaining bowel awareness. Ensuring adequate hydration and bulk-forming diet. Use of laxatives. Encourage fluid and fiber intake (Lewis et al., 2007). All these care it will provide by multidisciplinary team care of the cancer pain patient must be active by continuous care and communication to the patients and their families. It should attend physical, psychological, social and spiritual needs. Moreover, this type of team members need diverse training share the main goal of improving the quality of life with the patient and interact as a group of individuals with the common purpose of working together. Each member has own expertises and training and makes decisions within that area of responsibility. Nevertheless team work does not mean joining health care workers together in one room, nor is it the same as collaboration .information must be the issue for interaction of members and must be shared by the vehicle recorded, such as (physician, psychologist, and nurse, volunteer. social worker, chaplain, physical therapist and occupational therapist). In addition the family is important member of palliative team because they are the on e living with patient at the same home or attend them .the family need more care from the team and teach them the intervention to take care of their patients. (Euro, who, 2010). Effective communication is an important part of the therapy. In treating patients with advanced stages of incurable disease it is mandatory to provide intelligible and coherent information to the patient and relatives, focusing on the development of basic listening skills in the health care professionals all this from patient right and consideration from the ethics of communication (Batiste et al., 2010). ØلقØÙ†¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ Ø ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¶ ØلقØÙ†¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ Øلن¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ ÃƒËœÃ‚ µÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ Conclusion; Palliative care is not cure disease or prolongs life it is control the pain and symptoms and improves the quality of life for patients and family. More than 90% of cancer patients can be achieved relief from pain and symptoms through palliative care. There are effective strategies for the provision of palliative care for cancer patients and their families in places where resources are setting. (Who, 2011).Therefore palliative care is effective out come with professionals team. In addition the teams are requiring a high level of professional ethical skills to cooperate the primary goal. The primary goals of the team are to offers the best possible quality of life for the patient and family as well as to provide support.

Shakespeares Othello - The Triangle Between Othello, Iago, and Cassio :: GCSE English Literature Coursework

The Triangle Between Othello, Iago, and Cassio  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I chose to look at the triangle between Othello , Iago, and Cassio because these three men are very important in the play. They are important to each other and the people around them. The relationship between the three of them is very strange because someone is always trying to get back at the other one and they don’t care about each others feelings or anyone else’s. In the end this leads to a blood shed fight. Othello is the main character, heÕs the head of the Vinician army and he has just made Cassio his Lieutenant. Iago is very upset by this because he wanted to become Lieutenant but what he doesnÕt realize is that in some ways heÕs more important to Othello just without the title. Iago is OthelloÕs right hand man but Iago canÕt take that he wants more. The main problem that IÕve noticed in this play is a lack of communication and trust between the characters. Even though Iago must figure out a way to get get this position as Lieutenant I donÕt think he hateÕs Cassio or Othello. Iago is a very power hungry character and he will do anything and hurt anyone to get what he wants. Iago just canÕt understand how he could be chosen over someone who is very naive, but he never even asked Othello why he wasnÕt chosen as Lieutenant. Maybe Othello had a good reason for not giving him that position and he may have had another position waiting for Iago. Being in this situation leaves Iago to be jealous of Cassio and very angry with Othello, and the question WHY? ( But Iago never asks this question) Othello is a very strong will and minded character but also very naive in believing everything that Iago tells him. His other weakness is the love he has for his wife Desdemona. Othello being head of an army, I would assume would not be so gullible to believe everything he hears. But then you also have to look at who its coming from his Ã’right hand manÓ , but even so wouldnÕt you search around and try to find out for yourself whether or not all these accusations are true. Othello trusts Iago to much and doesnÕt really think for himself, he automatically believes in Iago which gives Iago even more power and control over his mind.

Chemistry Study Guide

Chemistry: Study Guide * Question 1 10 out of 10 points | | | According to VSEPR theory, which one of the following molecules should have a  bent   shape? Answer| | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚  Cl2O| | | | | * Question 2 10 out of 10 points | | | According to the VSEPR theory, the molecular shape of SiCl4  isAnswer| | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚  tetrahedral. | | | | | * Question 3 10 out of 10 points | | | According to the VSEPR theory, the shape of the SO3  molecule isAnswer| | | | | Selected Answer:| trigonal planar. | | | | | * Question 4 10 out of 10 points | | Balance the following equation using the smallest set of whole numbers, then add together the coefficients. Don't forget to count coefficients of one. ___ Al + ___ H2SO4  > ___ Al2(SO4)3  + ___ H2 The sum of the coefficients isAnswer| | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚  9. | | | | | * Question 5 10 out of 10 points | | | Consider the species Cl2+, Cl2, and Cl2?. Which of these species will be paramagnetic? Answer| | | | | Select ed Answer:|   Ã‚  Cl2+  and Cl2? | | | | | * Question 6 10 out of 10 points | | | How many O atoms are there in 51. 4 g CaSO4?Answer| | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚  9. 09 ? 1023| | | | | * Question 7 10 out of 10 points | | | How many covalent bonds will a nitrogen atom usually form? Answer| | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚  3| | | | | * Question 8 10 out of 10 points | | | How many grams of Cl2  can be prepared from the reaction of 16. 0 g of MnO2  and 30. 0 g of HCl according to the following chemical equation? MnO2  + 4HCl > MnCl2  + Cl2  + 2H2OAnswer| | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚  13. 0G| | | | | * Question 9 10 out of 10 points | | | How many grams of sodium are there in 10. g of sodium sulfate, Na2SO4?Answer| | | | | Selected Answer:| 3. 2| | | | | * Question 10 10 out of 10 points | | | In which of the following would the bonding be  weakened  with the addition of an electron to form the negative molecular ion? Answer| | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚  N2| | | | | * Question 11 0 out of 10 points | | | In which of these pairs of atoms would the bond have the  greatest  percent ionic character (i. e. , most polar)? Answer| | | | | Selected Answer:| c-o  Ã‚  s-o f–f| | | | | * Question 12 10 out of 10 points | | | Indicate the type of hybrid orbitals used by the central atom in PCl3.Answer| | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚  sp3| | | | | uestion 13 10 out of 10 points | | | The F? S? F bond angles in SF6  areAnswer| | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚  90 ° and 180 °. | | | | | * Question 14 10 out of 10 points | | | The Lewis dot symbol for the a lead atom isAnswer| | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚  | Not A| | | | * Question 15 10 out of 10 points | | | The Lewis structure for CS2  is:Answer| | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚  | | | | | * Question 16 10 out of 10 points | | | The number of pi bonds in the molecule below is Answer| | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚  3| | | | | Question 17 10 out of 10 points | | | T he number of resonance structures for the nitrate ion that satisfies the octet rule isAnswer| | | | | Selected Answer:| 3| | | | | Question 18 Question 18 10 out of 10 points | | | The shape of the CS2  molecule is best described asAnswer| | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚  linear. | | | | | | | | * Question 19 0 out of 10 points | | | What is the formal charge on sulfur in the best Lewis structure for the SCN? (thiocyanate) ion? Answer| | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚  ? 1 +2 -2+1| | | | | * Question 20 10 out of 10 points | | What type of chemical bond holds the atoms together within a water molecule? Answer| | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚  Polar covalent bond Question 2110 out of 10 points | | | When 22. 0 g NaCl and 21. 0 g H2SO4  are mixed and react according to the equation below, which is the limiting reagent? 2NaCl + H2SO4  > Na2SO4  + 2HClAnswer| | | | | Selected Answer:| | | | | | | | | | * Question 22 10 out of 10 points | | | Which of the following correctly li sts species in order of  increasing  bond length? Answer| | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚  O2+  ; O2  ; O2? | | | | | * Question 23 0 out of 10 points | | | Which of these atom is the  most  electronegative? Answer| | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚  P| | | | | Question 24 10 out of 10 points | | | Which of these compounds is most likely to be ionic? Answer| | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚  KF| | | | | * Question 25 10 out of 10 points | | | Which of these elements is most likely to exhibit an expanded octet in its compounds? Answer| | | | | Selected Answer:| s| | | | | * Question 26 0 out of 10 points | | | Which of these ionic solids would have the largest lattice energy? Answer| | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚  CaBr2NaF, NaCl| | | | * Question 27 10 out of 10 points | | | Which of these pairs of elements would be most likely to form an ionic compound? Answer| | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚  Cl ; Mg| | | | | * Question 28 10 out of 10 points | | | Which of these su bstances will display an incomplete octet in its Lewis structure? Answer| | | | | NO| | | | | uestion 29 10 out of 10 points | | | Which response includes all the molecules below that do not follow the octet rule? (1) H2S  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (2) BCl3  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (3) PH3  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (4) SF4Answer| | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚  (2) and (4)| | | | |

Early Childhood Education Essay

Abstract There has been a great deal of research conducted in the subject matter of early childhood education. During the preschool years, the human brain is growing rapidly and extremely sensitive to new information. Researchers have conducted studies in an effort to show a correlation between enrollment in early education and cognitive and social development. This paper will provide a brief overview of the results from the following: the Head Start program studies, the High/Scope Perry Preschool study, and the Child Parent Center in Chicago. This paper will also discuss the impact of childcare facilities on child development. The vast amount of research provided by these studies effectively shows an increase in cognitive development in the preschoolers that were enrolled and found that negative social behaviors were reduced as a result of early education intervention. The research indicates that all children exhibited signs of cognitive and social growth, but that underprivileged children w ere impacted the most. Child- care facilities were not as productive furthering childhood development. This paper will conclude by addressing the need of well-developed preschool programs and the need for well-educated teachers in the preschool environment. Keywords: early childhood education, preschool, cognitive and social development Early Childhood Education: Impact on Cognitive and Social Development Preschool is a term that defines early childhood education for children ranging from ages two through four years old. Preschool programs normally consist of federally funded programs, state and local preschools, and child care facilities. Preschool enrollment has increased dramatically over the last few decades. Approximately 75% of four year olds and 50% of three year olds are enrolled in a preschool center, which is a statistically significant contrast from 10% in the 1960’s (Barnett, 2008). Not only has there been an increase of children enrolled in public preschools, but also in private preschools (Barnett, 2008). This increase may be attributed to the need for childcare as the work force shifted from a single income to dual income household or the desire to equip children with the necessary skills to help them in their educational career (Barnett & Yarosz, 2007). Winter and Kelley (2008) reported that many early childhood teachers found that nearly one-third of their students were deficient in certain areas that were sure to hinder their educational success (p. 260). There have been many studies conducted to try and define the impact of preschool on a child’s development. Researchers have studied Head Start programs across the country, the High/Scope Perry Preschool, the Child Parent Center in Chicago among others, and child care facilities. Early Childhood Education research has shown that preschool has an impact on a child’s cognitive and social development, with the greatest impact on minority and disadvantaged children. Developing Brain Most parents and educators know that a child’s brain, from birth to approximately five years of age, is exceptionally vulnerable to the learning of new skills and concepts. Winter and Kelley (2008) state that the â€Å"neural connections or ‘synapses’ develop at a phenomenal rate during this time† which aids in developing a â€Å"foundation for later skill acquisition† (p. 263). Due to the brains extreme susceptibility during the preschool years, not only do preschoolers develop cognitive skills they need, but also socio-emotional skills. Mai, Tardif, Doan, Liu, Gehring, and Luo (2011) conducted a study of positive and negative feedback in preschoolers, which showed that preschoolers are â€Å"more responsive to positive feedback than to negative feedback† (p. 5). They concluded that the importance of the amount of positive feedback was significant enough that it may stimulate preschoolers desire to learn (Mai, et al, 2011). Researchers have found that during this early period of childhood development, children are able to boost gross motor skills and acquire language (Winter & Kelley, 2008, p. 262). Due to the unique nature of the brain during preschool years, experiences or lack of can impede child development (Winter & Kelley, 2008, p. 263). In a study conducted by Burger (2012), a toddler’s working memory can positively impact a child’s behavior and has a positive influence over a child’s math and reading ability (p. 210). A young child’s brain, if stimulated inappropriately, can have an adverse impact on cognitive and social development. A child’s cognitive development is connected to their social development. Willis and Schiller (2011) propose that â€Å"positive early experiences promote optimum brain development, which impacts all areas of development (para. 1). Impact of Government Preschool Programs In 1965, the Head Start program was created in an effort to provide â€Å"an array of social, health, and educational services for young children and their families† (Winter & Kelley, 2008, p. 261). This program is federally funded and targets underprivileged children. Underprivileged children are more susceptible to fall behind or to not complete their education due to lack of early education intervention. There is documentation that shows that minorities and poor children struggle with â€Å"language, literacy, social, and other skills needed† (Child Trends & Center for Child Health Research, 2004; Early et al, 2007), than children who are not underprivileged (Winter & Kelley, 2008, p. 260). Burger (2009) reports that a majority of children from low socio-economic backgrounds are more likely to: experience grade repetition, to require additional educational assistance throughout their school career, or ultimately become high school dropouts (p. 142). Ludwig and Phillips (2007) reported the findings of an evaluation completed by Garces, Thomas, and Currie (2002) that compared siblings, either attending or not attending the Head Start Program (p.4). They wrote that the sibling that attended Head Start were 22% more likely to graduate and 19% more likely to seek higher education (p. 4). The National Impact Study (NIS) is one of the most in depth study on the Head Start program, and involves a random compilation of children enrolled in Head Start throughout the country between the ages of three and four years old (Pianta, Barnett, Burchinal, & Thornburg, 2009, p. 59). This study showed that there was minor cognitive and social growth over a nine month period. Barnett (2008) reported an increase of 0.20 standard deviations on cognitive development and a decrease of 0.05 standard deviations in negative social behavior, such as hyperactivity for three year olds (p. 6). However, upon completing a follow up on the study, the cognitive benefits gained by the children were no longer observed at the end of their kindergarten school year (Pianta, Barnett, Burchinal, & Thornburg, 2009, p. 59). Parents reported positive changes in their child’s dental and physical health and the research indicates an increase of 0.12 standard deviations (Barnett, 2008, p. 6). There was a case of four year olds that experienced greater cognitive development. This was illustrated by the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, which had an increase of 0.20-0.27 standard deviations (Barnett, 2008, p.7). The Tulsa Head Start program was designed with a vision to help children develop skills for school readiness. This preschool program is funded by the state and is a part of the Tulsa Public School system; therefore, teachers must possess a Bachelor of Art degree and have a certification in early childhood education (Gormley, Phillips, & Gayer, 2008). The Tulsa Head Start program study compared the Tulsa Public School (TSP) pre-kindergarten against the Tulsa Head Start program. The study showed that the TSP pre-kindergarteners showed vast improvement in letter-word identification, spelling, and applied problems, whereas the Tulsa Head Start preschoolers’ results were deemed notable (Gormley, Phillips, & Gayer, 2008). While Head Start programs are supposed to adhere to a â€Å"national standard† (Pianta, et al, 2009), many do not have the same requirements (p. 55). Pianta and his colleagues (2009) explain that most teachers working for Head Start programs make less than $26,000 per year, with the exception of Tulsa Head Start whose teachers earn a regular teacher salary (p. 55). This may explain why the results of the Tulsa Head Start studies are not typical compared to other Head Start studies (Barnett, 2008, p. 7). Teacher qualifications of the Head Start employees may have an impact on the low levels of development observed of children in the program. Before 2011 Head Start teachers (excluding the Tulsa Head Start teachers) were not required to obtain an associate degree and directors did not have to possess a bachelor degree (Pianta, et al, 2009). However, Pianta and his colleagues (2009) report that by the year 2013, at least half of all Head Start teachers will be required to obtain a bachelor’s degree (p. 55). Because the Head Start studies were conducted in varying locations and on a variety of children, it is difficult to pinpoint the exact impact of cognitive and social development for each child. The rate of attendance also varies on location. Some Head Start programs have fewer than five days of scheduled class per week, while others attend the program five days a week during an entire school year (Pianta, et al, 2009, p. 54). Major successes of the Head Start programs appear to be achieving higher educational levels and improved health for children. The Head Start program reduced the mortality rate of children between the ages of five and nine years old (Barnett, 2008, p. 8) and provided a cognitive advantage in school achievement (Reynolds & Ou, 2011, p. 556). There were no extraordinary impacts on children’s social development throughout the Head Start studies. The program, however, has received conflicting reviews. Williams (2010) explains that because there is no orderly way to measure the effects of this program, there have been reports of positive â€Å"short-term gains in cognitive functioning† (p. 4) and the program has received criticism for only producing short term benefits (Williams, 2010, p. 4). Impact of Public Preschool Another option for children is a public preschool program. There are public preschools that function similar to the Head Start program, in which they target children from low income families. The teaching credentials of preschool teachers differ from other educators in the public school system and vary throughout different states. The requirements for public preschool teachers range from possessing a Child Development Associate (CDA) to a bachelor’s degree (Pianta, et al, 2009, p. 55). Public preschool programs tend to be successful in the area of cognitive and social development due to the increase of attention from the teacher (Barnett, 2008, p. 8). The topic of teacher quality in preschools is of a major concern and can have a direct impact on childhood development. Winter and Kelley (2008) explain that the development of a child’s social behavior correlates with the quality of the teacher (p. 263). The most significant research on public preschools stems from the High/Scope Perry Preschool study. In this study that lasted for two years, approximately 130 children, minority and underprivileged, were either enrolled in a half-day preschool or assigned to a control group (Barnett, 2008, p. 9). These participants were chosen by the following criteria: â€Å"low levels of parent education, socioeconomic status, and low intellectual performance† (Williams, 2010, p.4). The results were astounding. Barnett (2008) reported that language and basic cognitive skills increased by approximately 0.90 standard deviations (p. 9). The cognitive advantage was short-lived as children from the control group were caught up during kindergarten (Barnett, 2008, p. 9); however, Reynolds and Ou (2011) determined that there was an advantage on educational attainment (p.556). The Perry study also showed evidence of social development in later years. The students demonstrated appropriate classroom etiquette, had lower levels of delinquency, and a higher rate of commencement (Barnett, 2008, p. 9). Burger (2009) explained that the Perry study is unique in nature due to the environment of the classroom (para. 5.2). He added that preschools similar to the Perry preschool have â€Å"low child-to-staff ratios† (Burger, 2009, para. 5.2), so teachers are able to be readily available to their students. Another influential study on preschool impact is the Child Parent Center (CPC) study on a preschool in Chicago. This program was directed more for children from the ages of three to nine years old (Williams, 2010, p. 5). This preschool is tailored to low-income families that includes â€Å"a half-day preschool, kindergarten, and a follow-on elementary school component† (Barnett, 2008, p. 11). The results of all CPC studies were positive for impact on children’s cognitive development (Barnett, 2008, p. 12). The CPC study showed that participating preschoolers had higher test scores up until eighth grade, a reduction of delinquency, and observed an increase in the percentage of high school graduates (Pianta, Barnett, Burchinal, & Thornburg, 2009,p. 62). Reynolds and Ou (2011) also evaluated the CPC study and found that former students tend to have less risk of experiencing depression and generally have higher occupational stature (p. 558). The National Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER) reports that the Abbott Preschool Program has had a tremendous effect on child development as measured in 2005 and 2006 with the Abbot Preschool Program Longitudinal Study (APPLES) (Study of Abbott, 2007). The Abbott Preschool was opened in 1999 and was put in place to serve the â€Å"highest-poverty school districts† (Study of Abbott, 2007) in the state of New Jersey (Study of Abbott, 2007). This preschool program showed positive cognitive growth in their students through their kindergarten year. The students enrolled showed significant achievements in English, reading, and mathematics (Study of Abbott, 2007). This program not only measured student progress, but also took into account the quality of the classroom. The study found a significant increase in â€Å"child learning, language and reasoning, activities and interactions, and program structure† (Study of Abbott, 2007). Other studies of public preschools provided results depicting social development and school preparedness (Barnett, 2008, p. 10). Pickens (2009) explains that public preschool programs â€Å"show a positive impact on children’s behavior outcomes, especially for children living in poverty† (Barnett, 1995; Peterson & Zill, 1986). In the preschool setting, children are exposed to other children from different backgrounds, different personalities and different ethnicities. During this time in childhood development, children begin to learn social behavior. Pickens (2009) explains that these social behaviors are influenced by their teachers and classmates (p.263). Participation in the preschool setting allows children to learn how to interact with classmates and encounter situations that can mold their cognitive development (Willis & Schiller, 2011). Attending a preschool class helps to enable a child to learn to regulate their emotions, communicate effectively with others, cooperate with others, and to follow directions (Pickens, 2009, p. 263). Children model what they see. Pickens (2009) urges educators and parents to assist children in developing healthy behaviors in an effort to avoid a negative path of behavioral and academic issues (p.264). Impact of Child Care Facilities Child care facilities can consist of home-based child care or child development centers (with some centers offering half-day preschool programs). These facilities are normally center-based and care for infants from six weeks old to three year olds (Pickens, 2009, p. 262). Child care facilities were â€Å"found to have the smallest initial effects on children’s learning and development† (Barnett, 2008), while home-based daycare had no effect on building cognitive skills (p. 5). This is not to say that all home-based daycares are not able to provide some cognitive benefit to children. If a home-based child care program is well-developed and provides a â€Å"high-quality† (Winter & Kelley, 2008), then children are more likely to benefit cognitively (p. 263). This high-quality can also make a difference in child care centers. The National Institute of Child Health (NICHD) and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD) showed that †Å"higher quality care†(Belsky, Burchinal, McCartney, Vandell, Clarke-Stewart, & Tresch Owen, 2007) had a positive impact on children’s vocabulary skills (p.681). The NICHD SECCYD conducted future evaluations and found that some effects wore off at four and a half years old, while when evaluated in third grade the children had â€Å"higher scores on standardized tests of math, memory, and vocabulary skills† (Belsky, et al, 2007). The cognitive long-term benefits of attending child care may result in an increase in household income caused by working mothers; however, working mothers tend to spend less time with their children (Barnett, 2008). Just like preschool, child care can benefit underprivileged children. Belsky et al (2007) stated that â€Å"child care can serve as an effective intervention for low-income children† (Hart & Risley, 1995) that live in a household lacking in literary skills (p.697). Barnett (2008) mentioned that some studies show an actual regression of social development as children were more prone to be aggressive (p.6). Winter and Kelley (2008) also report that the amount of time a child spends in child care has an impact of negative behaviors when they reach elementary school (p.263). Others believe that a child’s negative behavior is may correlate with the amount of time spent in day care. Pianta and his colleagues (2009) found that children who spent the least amount of hours in day care had less troublesome behavior (p. 58). Just as the quality of the Head Start and preschool teacher had an impact on the child, so does the caregiver at a child care center. The lack of academic qualifications of child care workers or lack of academically challenging curriculum can attribute to the small cognitive development observed in children who attend child care versus a more academically centered program. Meyers (2007) reports that the approximately two and a half million child care teachers are some of the lowest paid, only earning approximately $18,000 annually (para. 1). This is significantly lower than other early education teachers. The cognitive and social impacts on children are strongly related to child-to-teacher ratio, total number of children in a room, and the teacher’s qualifications (Clothier & Poppe, 2007). However, it has been noted that the amount of attention the caregiver offers to the child can have an impact on their social and cognitive development (Pianta, Barnett, Burchinal, & Thornbur g, 2009, p. 58). Conclusion There are noticeable short-term and long-term impacts on a child’s development, cognitively and socially, with the aid of early childhood education programs. Because the brain is vulnerable at this age it is in these years that children experience â€Å"dramatic improvements† (Mai, et al, 2011) in their cognitive and social abilities. The government funded program, Head Start, has indicated that while children do show immediate, moderate growth in cognitive development, social benefits were not as prominent. This program has proven to be beneficial to children from low- income families, as it has resulted in improved literacy, language skills and an increased rate of commencement. Preschool studies have also shown an increase in reading and mathematics ability and in some cases extending into elementary school years. The social benefits of a preschool education have had an even longer impact on a child’s future behavioral issues. There is a vast amount of research that shows that â€Å"the early years of a child’s development can influence future success† (Winter & Kelley, 2008), so federal and state â€Å"policy makers should not depart from preschool education models that have proven highly effective† (Barnett, 2008). It is important that in order for preschool programs, government-funded and public, to continue to be effective in child development, the need for well-designed programs is a must (Barnett, 2008). These well-designed programs must demand a high caliber of teachers that have formal post-secondary education in the area of early childhood development. Preschools should be prepared meet the needs of the variety of students from different backgrounds and be able to give children in need more of a priority (Barnett, 2008). More research on the impact of early childhood education is needed, due to the varying types of programs that are currently in place. References Barnett, W. S. (2008). Preschool education and its lasting effects: Research and policy implications. Boulder and Tempe: Education and the Public Interest Center & Education Policy Research Unit. Retrieved September 12, 2012 from http://epicpolicy.org/publication/preschooleducation Barnett, W. S., & Yarosz, D. J. (2007). Who goes to preschool and why does it matter? Preschool Policy Brief, 15, p. 2. Retrieved October 8, 2012 from http://nieer.org/resources/policybriefs/15.pdf Belsky, J., Vandell, D.L., Burchinal, M., Clarke-Stewart, K.A., McCartney, K., Owen, M.T., & the NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2007). Are there long-term effects of early child care? Child Development, 78, p. 681–701. Burger, K. (2010). How does early childhood care and education affect cognitive development? An international review of the effects of early interventions for children from different social backgrounds. Early Childhood Research Quarterly. 25, 140-165. doi: 10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.11.001 Gormley, W. T., Phillips, D., & Gayer, T. (2008). The early years: Preschool programs can boost school readiness. Science. 320(5884), p. 1723-1724. doi:10.1126/science. 1156019 Ludwig, J., & Phillips, D. (2007). The benefits and cost of head start. Society for Research on Child Development, Social Policy Report. 21(3), p. 3-19 Mai, X., Tardif, T., Doan, S. N., Lui, C., Gehring, W. J., & Luo, Y. (2011). Brain activity elicited by positive and negative feedback in preschool-aged children. PLoS ONE. 6(4), e18774. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0018774 Meyers, M. K. (2007). Child-care pay, child-care quality: Decent early childhood education requires well-trained and compensated educators. The American Prospect 18(12), A18. Pianta, R. C., Barnett, S. W., Burchinal, M., Thornburg, K. R. (2009). The effects of preschool education: What we know, how public policy is or is not aligned with the evidence base, and what we need to know. Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 10(2), p. 49-88. doi: 10.1177/1529100610381908 Pickens, J. (2009). Socio-emotional programme promotes positive behaviour in preschoolers. Child Care in Practice. 15(4), p. 261-278. doi: 10.1080/13575270903149323 Reynolds, A. J., & Ou, S. (2011). Paths of effects from preschool to adult well-being: A confirmatory analysis of the child-parent center program. Child Development. 82(2). p. 555-582. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01562.x Study of abbott preschool program finds positive effects. (2007, August/September). Preschool Matters. Retrieved September 28, 2010 from http://nieer.org/publications/preschool-matters-newsletters/volume-5-number-4 Williams, J. (2010). Assessment of quality preschool programming (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved September 28, 2012 from ProQuest. (UMI:3413253) Willis, C. A., & Schiller, P. (2011). Preschoolers’ social skills steer life success. YC Young Children, 66(1), 42-49. Retrieved September 24, 2012 from http://search.proquest.com/docview/874155104?accountid=12085 Winter, S. M., & Kelley, M. F. (2008). Forty years of school readiness research. Childhood Education, 84(5), 260-260. Retrieved September 12, 2012 from http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/docview/210412708/fulltextPDF?accountid=12085